Can animal experimentation be justified Research Paper

Can physical experimentation be justified - seek Paper ExampleIt can be used as well to promote interests and welfare of animals such as discoverys in veterinary practice. The experiment through with(p) on dogs led to the treatment of most canine diseases such as diabetes and heart irregularities (Paul, 6). The pros also argued that it is immoral to risk the life of sympathetics for medical breakthrough when animals can be used instead. Let us take the example of Pondimin and Redux diet drugs. If the federal law would not require testing on animals before distribution on humans, disasters such as increase incidence of heart-valve defects might be experienced by millions of humans (Paul, 5). On the other hand, cons potently believe that just like humans, animals leave the right to be treated as beings and be protected against experimentation as in the experimentation infecting monkeys with AIDS. Animals should never be harmed just for potential gain in humanity. Unlike human, a nimals arent able to give their consent so it is not acceptable to test medicines on them even if it will be used for other animals including the case of cows and sheep being infected with tuberculosis just to find the pathogenesis of the disease (Paul, 4). The cons believe that what is much immoral is to experiment animals and later on, found out that it is not a reliable guide to human reactions. Humans treated animals as a disposable and worthless biological object. The most popular examples are the experiments done on mice and rodents and later on rejected for they are not equally reliable to the human physiology. Definition of Animal Experimentation Animal experimentation is defined as the use of live animals in research in the biological, psychological, and medical technological sciences, the pronounce in which animals are used in the production of biological extracts and the testing of consumer products, drugs and food through partial or complete dissection of live animals for research purposes (Monamy, 6). Practices snarled in Animal Experimentation There are practices that are being used in animal experimentation going back 2,000 years ago. In Egypt, animals were used to study body functions. Aristotle learned the structure and development of animals by dissection. Galen, a Romanian, used certain animals to prove that veins do not carry denude but blood. William Harvey used animals in 1622 to describe the blood circulation in 1622. It was in 1846 when animals were used to determine the effects of anesthesia and in 1878 to show the relationship mingled with bacteria and disease. During the 20th century, advances made in medicine, cure of infectious diseases and immunization, and surgical procedures became possible because of animal experimentation. In the practice of animal experimentation, several animals need to be sacrificed in achieving scientific goal. To reduce the rate of polio, hundreds of primates were sacrificed to develop polio vaccine. Monkeys were used to test HIV vaccines. Recently, a research in the University of Massachusetts have taken immature cells from spinal cord of adult rats and made them grow and implanted in paralyzed rats. Soon, these rats were able to move, stand and walk. This practice of tissue engineer in animal experimentation has given hope to several people who suffer from spinal cord injury (MacKinnon, 208). Other practices involve in animal experimentation used transgenic animals as drug- producing machines. This

The Marketing Environment Essay Example for Free

The Marketing Environment EssayThe marketing environment surrounds and impacts upon the organization. There are three pick out elements to the marketing environment which are the intimate environment, the microenvironment and the macroenvironment. Why are they important? Well marketers build both(prenominal) internal and external relationships. Marketers aim to deliver respect to satisfied customers, so we need to assess and evaluate our internal business/corporate environment and our external environment which is subdivided into micro and macro.Internal EnvironmentThe internal environment has already been touched upon by other lessons on marketing teacher. For example, the lessons on internal marketing and also on the functions within an organization leaping a good starting point to look at our internal environment. A useful tool for quickly auditing your internal environment is known as the Five Ms which are Men, Money, Machinery, Materials and Markets. Here is a really q uick example using British Airways. Looking internally at men, British Airways employees pilots, engineers, cabin crew, marketing managers, etc. Money is invested in the business by shareholders and banks for example. Machinery would include its aircraft but also access to air bridges and buses to ferry passengers from the terminal to the aircraft. Materials for a service business like British Airways would be aircraft fuel called kerosene (although if we were making aircraft materials would include aluminium, wiring, glass, fabric, and so on). Finally markets which we know can be both internal and external. Some might include a sixth M, which is minutes, since time is a valuable internal resource.

Australian Rules essay Essay Example for Free

Australian Rules essay EssayAustralian rules is set in a small rural town, where the relationships among the blanched towns concourse and the aborigine people on the mission are complex, conflicted and marred by deeply entrenched racial discrimination. The topical anaesthetic football police squad in many ways serves to represent the town, it reflects the conflicted relationship between the white people and the Aboriginal people- we begin to understand this as the hire unfolds.Other themes inherent in the film are themes of family, love, loyalty and violence- the secrecy of domestic violence and the more overt forms of racial violence that spill come out onto the public spheres of the football field and the pub. The opening narration informs us that half the football team is Aboriginal and that there would not be a football team without the Aboriginal players, therefore we understand how the town team relies on the talent and number of the Aboriginal players.We then witn ess the contradiction of the white and Aboriginal male childs playing side by side as team members followed by the social segregation between the members after the match. This segregation is highlighted by Blacky (a white boy from town) and Dumby (an Aboriginal boy who is the best player on the team) whose friendship transcends these borders and we also witness ways that this segregation between the white teenager and Aboriginal teenagers is culturally imposed by certain adults.In one of the beginning scenes, just after a football match, Dumby and Blacky want to hang out together, save Dumby is interpreted back to the mission by an older friend and Blacky cannot follow. Blacky, Clarence and Dumby all call out to each other Nukkin ya and this use of Aboriginal language between both Aboriginal teenagers and Blacky the white boy signifies the level of their friendship and mutual acceptance. Pickles comment to Blacky that now he even talks like one, symbolises the towns disapproval o f much(prenominal) respect for Aboriginal culture and Aboriginal people.The lineament of Pretty, Dumbys older friend from the mission, plays an important role in the film. He was erstwhile a talented football player himself but no longer kicks goals for whitefellas and he is significant because he is the main character to verbalise that Aboriginal people are treated differently and unfairly. He is somewhat aggressive in his approach, expressing bitterness and resentment, yet it is implied that his approach is reactionary to the way he has been treated, and his statementsoverlooked by the white coach- are significant examples of changing responses to uneven power dynamics.For example the white coach tells Dumby to make sure all the Aboriginal team players turn up to the next match and Pretty interjects stating that it doesnt work that way anymore, his metaphor of yes sir, no sir, three bags full sir, clearly refers to the history of Aboriginal people be used as servants and point s out that the coachs approach of ordering Dumby around is no longer appropriate.Unfortunately the coach does not take this depicted object on and rather than acknowledging the Aboriginal boys as talented, valuable and indeed essential team players, he nervously treats them as unreliable boys who may destroy the teams chances by not turning up. This attitude of relying on Aboriginal talent, whilst refusing to appropriately acknowledge this talent is made explicitly clear during the award grownup ceremony that takes place after the team win the finals.Pretty is made to leave the ceremony after he disputes the truth of a speech just about the egalitarian nature of football where you can be anyone, from anywhere, and receive the recognition you deserve. Pretty is immediately proved to be right when the awards are accustomed only to white boys, and Dumby, who is obviously the most talented player on the team is left completely unacknowledged. There is a direct shift in Dumbys respon se and he becomes more like Pretty, demonstrating anger and resentment, rather than his normal cheerful, co operative self.This gives us insight into Prettys character and how he may have developed the attitude that he has towards white people. Pretty and Dumbys break-in to the pub that very night can be interpreted as a direct response to the unfairness of the award ceremony- although there are characters, such as the coach, who are not willing to keep an eye on the connection. The fact that Dumby is then murdered by Blackys capture is a complicated event with many layers of meaning.The insights we have been given about Blackys father prior to the shooting is that of a man who dominates his family, puts down his sons for showing vulnerability and who physically abuses his wife. There are instances in which we can bump links between the violence he demonstrates towards his family and the verbal and physical violence he feels justified in displaying towards Dumby, and then later t owards Dumbys sister, Clarence.There is a scene in which the father physically attacks Blacky and forces Blacky to declare loyalty to him (regarding the shooting), meanwhile verbally abusing Clarence with racial slurs and ordering her to get out of his house. During this scene the camera pans onto the faces of the Blackys mother and siblings and we see how domestic and racial violence become enmeshed, that the fathers attack on Blacky for being with Clarence is an act of violence that hurts his whole family.Interestingly it is Clarence who is the least cowed in this scene, she does not show fear and walks out with dignity. In this way we can see how control and domination is a particular pattern in this family, but is not taken on by Clarence. In many ways, the shooting, and the following events, are catalysts for great changes, both in the town, and more specifically in Blackys family. Blacky rejects his parents demands to maintain loyalty to his father and instead Blacky remains l oyal to his friendship with Dumby.Blackys rejection of his fathers authority instigates other members of the family, such as his mother and next youngest brother who subtly take Blackys side. The scene where his brother urges him to get up and face his father, (when his father beat him to the ground), symbolises the involve of his family for Blacky to represent them all and challenge the fathers authority. The resolution of the film sees the father gone, leaving Clarence and Blacky happily together but planning to this town that has nothing for them.The fate of the town is not so happy, the boys from the mission wont come to town and there is no longer a football team. In many ways we can see how Australian rules reflects the complexities of human relationships- of love and loyalty and hatred and violence, and clearly demonstrates how deeply entrenched racism hurts everyone. The town, through its racism has destroyed the tentative trust of the Aboriginal people and has lost its gl ory- its winning football team. Its seems empty, a place only good for leaving.

Act 3, Scene 4 provides a great opportunity for visual spectical Essay Example for Free

Act 3, Scene 4 provides a great opportunity for visual spectical EssayQUESTION.Act 3, Scene 4 provides a great opportunity for visual spectical. Discuss how The gap Scene has been realised on screen and upset the effectiveness of its portrayal.ANSWER.Shakespeare was born in 1564 when Elizabeth the First was Queen of England. Shakespeare did not go to university when he left school instead, he worked. He married Anne Hathway when he was eighteen and she became the m early(a) of his daughter, Susanna, and also of twins. Although there are many public documents concerned with his career as a writer and a businessman, Shakespeare has hidden his personal purport from us. A nineteenth century poet, Matthew Arnold, addressed Shakespeare in a poem and wroteWe ask and ask Thou smilest, and art still. There is not even a portrait of the worlds greatest Dramatist.I am going to look at the banquet medical prognosis, in my opinion, one of the most important scenes in Macbeth it shows m any sides to both(prenominal) Macbeth and skirt Macbeth. The scene opens with the couple welcoming in all the guests to their Banquet, the atmosphere is warm and jolly, and e actuallyone is joking and enjoying themselves. The atmosphere becomes more sombre when one of Banquos murderers arrives with news for Macbeth. Although Banquo is safe, Fleance on the other hand has scapd . Macbeth tries toAct like the innocent flower, provided be the serpent undert in front of his guests, but this does not last for long, the guilt gets the better of Macbeth and causes him to hallucinate. The Lords were all very confused, and so, Lady Macbeth tries to cover-up for her husband by telling them all that Macbeth suffers from an illness, which causes him to behave in such a manner.Sit, worthy friends My Lord is often thus, and hath been from his youth.She continues by preceptThe fit is momentary upon a thought he will be well again.The two productions I am going to look at are Roman Polanskis 1971 Production along with Gregory Doran RSC production. In Gregory Dorans production, Macbeths house resembles a prison. The front foyer is very bare, with lots of different entrances this is assay to show us that Macbeth is imprisoned in his world of guilt. Macbeth is dressed as a soldier, which gives me the impression he is at war, maybe Doran is trying to put across the fact that Macbeth is trying to fight against all of the sin.Roman Polanski dressed Macbeth in beautiful robes Macbeth is also wearing his crown. This makes me think Macbeth is in total control of everything. Both producers hold the Banquet in a large, dull, cold room, this symbolises the fact that Macbeth has nowhere to hide it also creates a tense atmosphere.In Polanskis production, Macbeth sees Banquo and he goes madAvaunt And quit my sight permit the earth hide thee He continues to rant and rave at this ghost of Banquo, whom only Macbeth can see. He frightens and startles not only the lords, but also Lady Macbeth. We know this by the look of worry on her face. She then pulls her husband aside to try and help him see sense. He sees what she is trying to say and returns to normality, but this only lasts for a matter of moments, and then Macbeth resumes to his fit of madness again. Macbeth is gradually loosing control. While Macbeth moves back, Banquo continues to advance. As both men keep moving, the camera becomes Banquo. We see uplifted angle shot of Macbeth it seems as though Banquo is looking down upon Macbeth and that he is now the one in control. Lady Macbeth tries to make excuses for her husbands behaviour by sayingSit worthy friends My lord is often thus, and hath been from his youth pray you, keep seat the fit is momentary upon a thought he will be well again.We then see a long shot of the lords at the table they all look very puzzled and confused.By this time, Macbeth is in a corner, on the ground with Banquo towering over him, he moves in closer and closer, then Banquo is c ut, and Macbeth is left sitting on the ground, a trembling wreck.Gregory Dorans RSC Production is very similar to Polanskis. He also shows Macbeth being overpowered by Banquo. When Lady Macbeth pulls Macbeth aside to try and snap him out of his fit, he is unable to look her in the eye, he keeps watching the ghost of Banquo. He realises what his wife is trying to say, and so he returns to his normal self again. The way that Macbeth is changing personalities so suddenly in this scene reminds me of a schizophrenic, its almost as though he has some kind of mental disorder. Macbeth tries to laugh it off and composes himself. However, this only lasts for a moment.When Macbeth sees Banquo again, he drops his chalice, and the white booze spills onto the floor. This is an interesting observation because all the other products I watched used red wine, a sign of evil and danger, but white reminds me of innocence. Maybe Gregory Doran feels that Macbeth was innocent and this is why he uses whit e wine rather than red. He may feel it was the witches, or maybe Lady Macbeths influence that encouraged him to do all those evil things. Personally, I feel it was Lady Macbeth that caused him to go through with Duncans murder, but yet again, how many could be talked into murder without desiring it themselves?

Effects of Training Hours on Cardiovascular System

outcomes of Training Hours on Cardiovascular SystemImran OsmanThe effect of the intermediate training hours per week on the cardiovascular physical fitness of pas seul playersStudies much(prenominal) as that by Shannan E. Gormley et al. (2008) and Tabata et al. (1996) clearly show that exercise and regular training have a positive effect on the heart (circulatory agreement) and the respiratory system and therefore on the cardiovascular fitness of the individual. The aim of this find out was to further endorse and determine the effect that training hours have on cardiovascular fitness of sport musicians. Both the resting heart rates and VO2 scoop shovel of sport performers were bourgeonn into account when measuring the cardiovascular fitness.Frequent training is of key importance for sport participants. Regular training should increase the aerobic fitness of the performer due to increasing their VO2 max and decreasing their resting heart rate. The hypothesis suggested that an increase in come training hours per week would results in an increase in VO2 max and decrease in heart rate. This is based on the fact that VO2 max is the maximum arrive of oxygen that the body evict utilise per minute during intense exercise (Elizabeth Quinn, 2011) which is said to be an accurate measure of cardiovascular fitness. Resting heart rate is as comfortably a determinant of the fitness of sport participants. The resting heart rate of those who exercise and train more frequently should be lower because less effort is requisite from the heart to pump blood.(Source?) Found this as a source cant find a author though.http//www.nytimes.com/health/guides/specialtopic/physical-activity/exercises-effects-on-the-heart.html Try to find a journal that says it because they prefer you to use peer reviewed sourcesFifty sport participants, 25 male and 25 female took part in the study. The experiments included measurements of each participants VO2 max, resting heart rate and aver age training hours per week in their specific sport. In addition to this, alcohol intake and whether or non the participants smoke-cured were recorded, as both of these federal agents may affect the results.Ethical issues were considered before the exams on these subjects were carried out. For example participants had given informed consent, they understood their role in the experiment, as rise as having the choice to withdraw at any time. The subjects had volunteered to take part and were not pressurised to participate. If the participants had an injury or disease they would not be chosen to take part as this may have adversely affect their health during the experiment and have a negative impact on results.VO2 max was calculated using the Astrand 6 minute cycle VO2 max test which was performed using a cycle ergometer. A heart rate monitor, weighing scales and a stop watch were excessively required. Resting heart rate is the fig of beats per minute when the performer is at complete rest (Elizabeth Quinn, 2011), and was measured using the heart rate monitor. galore(postnominal) experiments involving the measurement of VO2 max have used the Astrand cycle test such as that by R.E. Cink et al.(1981) and it was said to be successful, also a study by G. Keren et al.(1980) on the Comparison of Various Methods for the Determination of VO2 max came to the conclusion that the Astrand-Rhyming procedure can be a reliable measure for maximal oxygen consumption. thusly this test was chosen for the investigation.Before each participant carried out the test, the seat height was adjusted appropriately where the knee was almost straight and the pedalling position make to be comfortable for the subject. In advance to the participant took part in a 3 minute warm-up. The initial cycle work rate was come out to 125 kilogram-force meter/minute. This setting was chosen as it was appropriate when looking at the age of each participant also this setting should raise the pa rticipants heart rate to 130-160bpm after 2 minutes cycling at 50rpm before the test starts. The participants would start the test on command and the stopwatch was then started. The performer(s) pedalled at 50rpm for 6 minutes whilst maintaining their heart rate between 120-170 bpm. The heart rate was chosen to be maintained at this throw a agency as recommended by G. Keren (1980), who is one of many others who carried out studies using the Astrand technique. He said that the procedure can only be a reliable measure for maximal oxygen consumption if done properly in the way that Astrand, (1985) carried it out so that heart rate should be kept between 120-170 beats/min. The participants heart rate was recorded each minute and after 2 minutes if the participants heart rate was not in the target range of 120-170bpm then the work rate wattage was adjusted accordingly. The heart rate rose to a level in the target range and then levelled off, staying relatively constant during the last few minutes of exercise. After 6 minutes the test stopped and the final work rate wattage was recorded. To estimate VO2 max using this protocol, the Astrand-Ryhming nomogram was used, similar to the study by Stephen. F.Siconolfi (1985), where the nomograph technique is carried out where the heart rate (left of nomograph) is plotted and then the work load (right of nomograph), which helps find the VO2 max (middle of nomograph). Once the estimated VO2 max value had been determined the calculation-based formula was used where the estimated VO2 max value was multiplied by the appropriate correction factor (based on age).A treadmill or a stationary bike could have been used to measure the VO2 max and it was important to stay with the same implement for each participant to maintain an accurate and fair test.The bicycle ergometer was chosen over the treadmill because it is less expensive, requires less space and is easily transported. It also makes it easier to take heart rate or attach an ECG and requires little training or practice. Furthermore, mechanical efficiency of individuals on stationary bikes varies less than the mechanical efficiency of during running protocols. It is also relatively easy to calculate the external work done on a bike, whereas the work done on a treadmill could be quite variable. Due to variation in mechanical efficiency of a treadmill, bike tests were seen to be better at identifying differences between subjects VO2 max.The inculpate resting heart rates and mean VO2 max of each participant (male and female) were calculated. As well as the standard deviations of resting heart rate and VO2 max, to see the number of variations that can exist from the average and to determine how numbers varied and how spread out they are.ResultsThe average resting heart and average VO2 max of each participant as well as the standard deviationsNote (Do Quantitative comparison here)-comparing males and females vo2 and resting HR?..Table of general resultsS ubject numberGenderAverage Training Hours per weekVO2 liquid ecstasy (ml/kg/min)Resting HR (bpm)1Female2048542Female944593Female2232744Female1841665Female635696Female1836697Female1642658Female1042679Female12476610Female8416611Female24506112Female14317513Female20604814Female18594815Female18416616Female20605617Female12486418Female11416519Female10436320Female26466121Female22674022Female16545023Female16366924Female16566225Female12505726Male18396827Male8436828Male12466629Male9476230Male16465831Male16387232Male16445833Male12406034Male20425835Male22416836Male18446037Male16555638Male16346939Male18446540Male14356941Male18624342Male20457043Male9347544Male16445445Male8386746Male8327047Male9436348Male14435549Male18605350Male104762Imran I dont think you need the info for every subject, just the averages. Otherwise theres too much selective information to read.The results vaguely show that as the number of training hours increase, the cardiovascular fitness for both genders increases. Figure 1 v aguely shows that the VO2 max increases for both genders, and figure 2 vaguely shows that for both genders as the average number of training hours increases the resting heart rate decreases.Figures 1 and 2 show that there was a large variation in results and that the results are not all close to the line of best fit, the data has anomalies, although there is a weak correlation. The variation could be down to factors such as the participants smoking and/ or having tall alcohol intake, therefore affecting the VO2 max and resting heart rate. The participants may also have carried out different types of training and training in a way that was specific to their individual sports. Their activities may have been aerobic or anaerobic training and this was not taken into account.The biggest limitation is the fact that the results are varied and not all are similar, there are many outliers, and as discussed this may be due to the differing types of training of the participants and so a futur e recommendation would be to carry out the experiment with a sample of participants who have preferred sports of which are only anaerobic or only aerobic.Shannan E. Gormley et al. (2008) undertook a similar study to determine the effects of regular aerobic training on VO2 max and resting heart rate, and whether various intensities of aerobic training differentially affected VO2 max as well as resting HR and resting blood pressure. Sixty one healthy modern adults took part in the study, they were matched for sex and VO2max and were randomly assigned to a moderate, ready near-maximal- gaudiness, or a non- exercising control class. Intensity during exercise was controlled by having the subjects maintain target HR. Exercise volume was controlled across the three training groups by varying duration and frequency. Fifty-five subjects completed a 6-wk training protocol on a stationary bicycle ergometer and pre and post testing.The researchers concluded that VO2 max had significantly inc reased in all exercising groups by 7.2, 4.8, and 3.4 ml/kg/min in the near-maximal, the vigorous, and the moderate-intensity groups, respectively. Therefore showing that Vo2 max increases with intensity of exercise as well as frequency of exercise.Other studies show similar results. Carleton B. Chapman and Robert. S. Frazer (1954) implies that regular exercise training increases cardiovascular function of an individual by increasing their cardiac output and therefore lowering the resting heart rate of the individual.A trial performed by Tabata et al. (1996) showed that after two experiments involving individuals whom are also young sport participants that took part in training programmes, and that after this regular training VO2 max of these individuals increases significantly.In conclusion, the results do not follow the hypothesis in that the data does not clearly show correlations of the effect of average training hours on the resting heart rates and VO2 max of this group of peopl e. This however is only for this specific group of people and may be down to other factors influencing these results such as their alcohol intake, if they smoke or not, and also more importantly, what is involved in their training. ane participant may be mainly focusing on agility, whilst another on strength. Furthermore, their particular sporting activity may be aerobic or anaerobic which may have affected the results also. Moreover, this sample size was small also, which means that the results cannot be generalised.ReferencesElizabeth Quinn. (2011). What Is VO2 Max. Online Accessed 20/02/2014 Available from http//sportsmedicine.about.com/od/anatomyandphysiology/a/VO2_max.htm.Elizabeth Quinn. (July 26, 2011). Resting Heart Rate. Online Accessed 20/02/2014 Available http//sportsmedicine.about.com/od/anatomyandphysiology/qt/Resting-Heart-Rate.htm.Tabata et al. (1996). (Department of Physiology and Biomechanics, National Institute of Fitness and Sports, JAPAN) Effects of moderate-int ensity endurance and high-intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2max. Online Accessed 20/02/2014 Available from http//jeffosadec.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/effects-of-moderate-intensity-endurance-and-high-intensity-intermittent-training-on-anaerobic-capacity-and-e280a2vo2max.pdf.Carleton B. Chapman and Robert S. Frazer. (1954). Studies on the Effect of Exercise on Cardiovascular Function Cardiac Output and Mean Circulation Time. Online Last accessed 19/02/2014.Available from http//circ.ahajournals.org/content/9/1/57.full.pdf+htmlShannan E. Gormley et al.(2008) Effect of Intensity of Aerobic Training on VO2max. Online Accessed 20/02/2014 Available from http//www.medscape.com/viewarticle/576846REFERENCE THE ONES BELOW CORRECTLY..-STEVEN F. SICONOLFI, CAROL EWING GARBER, THOMAS M. LASATER ANDRICHARD A. CARLETON (1985) http//aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/121/3/382.full.pdf+html R.E. Cink, T.R. Thomas. (1981) http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1858756/pdf /brjsmed00255-0036.pdf EXERCISES EFFECTS ON THE HEART, New york times http//www.nytimes.com/health/guides/specialtopic/physical-activity/exercises-effects-on-the-heart.html-A comparison of various methods for the determination of VO2max. Keren G, Magazanik A, Epstein Y. (1980).VO2 max (use this to replace all throughout essay)Usefull links? http//www.sportsci.org/jour/0101/cf.htmhttp//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2644030http//www.sfu.ca/leyland/Kin343%20Files/Bike%20Lab.pdfhttp//library.crossfit.com/free/pdf/52_06_VO2_Not_Gold_Standard.pdfLinks to do with the method/ Amstrad testhttp//highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072844221/123981/laba3_3.pdfand http//web.sls.hw.ac.uk/teaching/level3/A33TT3/A33TT3/Practical%202%20Astrand%20Rhyming.prn.pdfhttp//www.brianmac.co.uk/cycle6min.htmhttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQ2adzoaVdI(This link here will help find studies using the test )=http//www.vo2konsulten.se/artiklar/dan_andersson_astrand_ryhming.pdf

Norwegian Health System Analysis

Norse health System AnalysisOrganization and governanceThe Norwegian health assist system can best be described as a semi decentralized system. Municipalities atomic number 18 in betoken of primary palm and open the full responsibility of organizing health services on a local level. Since 2002, the four regional health administration (RHAs) take in been under state lapse and get to been held responsible for specialiser c be. Counties role is confined to statutory dental cargon.The Ministry of wellness is responsible for regulation and supervision of this framework, however many missions and assignments are mandated to opposite subordinate organisms. The ministry regulates the activities of its subordinate organisms through locate controlling in the case of subject agencies, ownership arrangements such as work outs and letters of instructions (RHAs), and legislation and money-related instruments (counties and municipalities). It guarantees that health and social service s are granted in line with national acts and regulations. Recently, inter-sectorial coordination has become an important tool in order to hinder social imbalances in health. In addition, more consideration has been dedicated to improve resource allocation (by emphasizing on the importance of health technology assessment and through anteriority settings), quality outcomes and patient safety. Since the beginning of 21st century, reinforcing patients role has become a top priority, for instance, through an overarching patient rights legislation handling issues such as patient choice and complaint procedures.Overview of the health systemThe stratified structure of the Norwegian welfare system is based on the moral principal of equal admission to healthcare services for all inhabitants irrespective of their social, economic or geographical residency. Norway has a three-tier healthcare system national/state, regional health authorities (RHA) and municipalities (fig1.2). Counties dram a a small role in the health-care organization.The system is have it awayd through an expansive number of acts and secondary legislation. Legislation mirrors the decentralized structure of the welfare system specialist care is controlled by the Specialist cathexis Act of 1999 and the Health Authorities and Health trust Act of 2001, dental care is managed by the alveolar consonant Health Services Act of 1983 and primary care is regulated by the Municipal Health and Care Act of 2011. Other areas of care that encompass several hierarchical levels are managed by distinct acts for instance, the Mental Care Act of 1999 and the Public Health Act of 2011. The government determines national priorities and the national budget is negotiated within the parliament. just about all proposals presented to the parliament are studied in depth by an expert committee. The Standing Committee on Health and Care Services is in bear down on of matters related to health services, do drugs and alcohol p olicy, public health and pharmaceuticals.The overall responsibility for the health-care sector however, rests at the national level with the Ministry of Health and Care Services. The ministry determines the national health policy, prepares and oversees legislation, decides on the allocation of funds within the health sector (allocation of resources to health and some other sectors is the responsibility of the Ministry of Finance), and implements national health policy with the admirer of several subordinate institutions (Directorate of Health, 2012c).The Ministry of Labor plays an indirect role in the welfare system, essentially through the Labor and Welfare Administration (NAV) that regulates various benefits regimens within the interior(a) Insurance Scheme (NIS), such as sick leave and disability compensation. The Ministry of Health and the Directorate of Health have been in charge of the healthcare budget in the overall NIS budget plan. This part of the budget is directed by t he Norwegian Health Economics Administration HELFO.Historical BackgroundThe directorate of Health was founded in 1945 and its work and the general health policy were inspired by the United Kingdom Beveridge Report (Kuhnle, 2006). The foundation of the NIS in 1967 (which was integrated into the NAV in 2006) was an compulsive step towards attaining universal coverage of welfare services. The Regular General Practitioner (RGP) scheme was implemented, giving people the right to choose a general practician (GP) of their choice (to be subscribed on the GPs list). Since 2012, the Coordination Reform gave the municipalities a bigger financial responsibility regarding patients who are about to be discharged from hospitals. This reform excessively aims to amend coordination between the municipal level and the RHAs.OrganizationCentral governance of the health systemThe ministry of Health puts national health regulations, elaborates major reforms and enforces their applications. The ministry via the RHAs has a direct obligation regarding the procurement of specialist care to patients. In addition, it has administrative control over a number of subordinate agencies (table 2.1, pages 21 and 47)Regional health authorities and hospital trust specialized health careThere are four RHAs in Norway Northern Norway RHA (Helse Nord), Central Norway RHA (Helse Midt Norge), Western Norway RHA (Helse Vest) and, the biggest, South-Eastern Norway RHA (Helse Sr st), covering nearly 55% of the population. The RHAs are in charge of the provision of specialized care and other specialized services including radiology, laboratory and ambulatory services. Presently, there are 27 health trusts managed by the RHAs.Counties dental care and public healthIn general, the Counties part in healthcare is restricted. They are primarily in charge of the procurement of statutory dental care.Municipalities primary careMunicipalities are accountable for the procurement and financing of primary care. Mo reover, they are accountable for a large grasp of public health and preventive measures. Municipalities are not under the direct commands of the central authorities and have a lot of flexibility in set up primary care services.Private health care sectorThe engagement of private actors in primary care is considerable. The majority of the general practitioner is self-employed. However, close GPs are integrated in the public system by contracting with municipalities. On the contrary, private pecuniary providers play a small role in the procurement of secondary care less than 2% of hospital beds are in private profit-making hospitals. Radiology centers and laboratory services remain the major profit-making institutions (80% and 60% of GP referrals for respectively radiology and laboratory services were made to for-profit facilities in 2010) (Directorate of Health, 2012b).Associations of health care professionalsThe major associations are the Norwegian Medical Association (27000 membe rs), the Dental Association (6300) and the Nurses Union (90000).These associations play a double role as trade union and professional associations. As professional associations, they are responsible for a large domain of activities, for example, trainings, education, health policies and ethics. As trade union, they aspire to protect and enhance the financial and professional interests of their members.Decentralization and centralization (3.3 pooling of funding)Scandinavian health care systems are often characterized as being run according to decentralized national health service (NHS) model funding is raised by revenue enhancement and the main actors are public (Rice Smith, 2002). The twentieth century saw a considerable delegation of power from central authority to the municipal level, however both tendencies currently co-exist.The funding system for municipalities was changed in 1986 when about 50 different earmarked grants were replaced by block grants (Ministry of Local Govern ment and Regional Development, 2005). This reform granted municipalities a more prominent level of independence regarding resources allocation across services. Municipalities are also entitled to raise taxes in the interest of financing their activities. In addition, some(a) further decentralization actions were implemented since the beginning of the 21st century. For instance, the 2000 reform changed the paradigm of hospitals management (day-to day running of the hospital is the responsibility of the general manager and decision maker board) (Johnsen 2006). On the other hand, centralization tendencies can be observed at the same time. The 2002 reforms transferred responsibility for second care from counties to the national level (state). The country was nonintegrated into 5 RHAs (then reduced to 4 in 2007) and hospitals were organized as hospital trusts, which were founded at the same time (Hagen Kaarboe, 2007). (Sections 3.3.3 and 2.8.4)PlanningThe National Health Plans is the groundwork grooming tool in the welfare area for the coming four years. The plans describe the existing status of the healthcare system, as well as the major challenges, and declare policy goals and actions aimed at meeting them (Nylenna 2007).IntersectorailityThe coordination of the different measures aimed to improve the overall organization of the healthcare system relies on the interaction of various ministries other than the ministry of Health. The Ministry of Education is touch with the forecasting of the health workforce, the Ministry of finance is involved through the taxation system and the Ministry of Labor is implicated in the NIS.Information systemsNational registers gather an extensive scope of healthcare data and cover the entire population (table 2.2). Collecting data is compulsory for healthcare professionals and it doesnt entail patients consent. At this date, there are 15 central registries in Norway. Hence, the quality of data in these registers is in general c onsidered to be high (NIPH, 2009).Statistics Norway is the central institution in charge of gathering, examining, and publishing authoritative statistics. Moreover, there are several medical databases (kvalitetsregistere) which gather data about health outcomes and other nurture concerning specific treatments or diagnoses. These databases give important information to evaluate the impact of different treatment strategies and provide valuable data for research and quality control.Health technology assessment (HTA)HTA is under the responsibility of the Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services (NOKC). This appraisal evaluates both the clinical and cost-effectiveness benefits of a medicine or procedure. The new system launched in early 2013 is support by mini-HTA reports(assessed at the level of local hospitals), as well as full-HTA reports carried out by the Norwegian Medicines Agency (NoMA) and the NOKC. The purpose of the mini HTA is to guarantee that patients have fast access to innovative and safe hospital treatments.Priority setting or resource allocationRegulationRegulation and governance of tertiary-party payersThe NIS is the main third party payer in Norwegian welfare system. Its budget is under the control of the Directorate of Health (HELFO). Voluntary health insurance (VHI) is the only other third party payer in the Norwegian system.Governance and regulation of specialist careWe should to a previous section?The ministry of health is in charge of secondary care through RHAs. However RHAs are independent legal entities, governed by independent boards. The RHAs are responsible of health trusts but health trusts are also separate legal institutions with their own management an executive board.Regulation and governance of pharmaceuticalsRegulation of pharmaceutical productsThe Norwegian Medicines Agency (NoMA) is responsible for granting/withdrawing marketing authorizations and is in charge of post-marketing pharmacovigilance. The regulation o f pharmaceuticals comes into agreement with applicable EU regulations since Norway is a member of the EEA. Therefore, there are four relevant procedures that industries should expend when requesting marketing authorization the national procedure, centralized procedure, mutual recognition and decentralized procedures.Regulation of pharmacies and wholesalersThe 2000 Pharmacy Act shapes the activities of pharmacies in Norway. This act remolded the pharmaceutical environment. First, pharmacist monopole was cancelled (only certified pharmacists can manage pharmacies, however any individual can possess the pharmacy). Second, the restrictions on opening new pharmacies were removed (until 2001 the NoMA adjusted the number of pharmacies). Hence, every drugstore must have two different licenses one license to possess the pharmacy (the owners license) and the second to manage the pharmacy (the operating license). Third, drugstore chains are permitted. Pharmacists have been granted the right f or generic substitution since 2001, though only drugs available on the substitution list published by NoMA can be substituted. Only a couple of internet pharmacies are available in Norway and are only permitted to sell OTC medicines.Policies to improve cost effective use of pharmaceuticalsFirstchoice scheme is an initiative taken by the government to encourage the usage of generics. Doctors are now compelled to prescribe generic drugs unless there is a life-threating medical reason that justifies the use prescription of the name brand drug.Pharmacists are bound to advise patients if there is a less expensive generic drug when their doctor prescribes the original name brand medicine. Patients are obliged to pay the price difference if they insist on buying the originator drug kind of than the generic. Higher profits on generic drugs are a key driver for pharmacist to encourage the switch.

The Evolutionary Aspects Of Fear Psychology Essay

The Evolutionary Aspects Of Fear Psychology EssayThis paper presents an exclusive discussion of what is cognize about the biological seat of business concern. In presenting this discussion, the paper shall explore the main concepts relating to the biology behind business concern in humans with the main ideas being the explanation of attention, the evolutionary aspects of forethought, as well as the senseal response of the brain in the event of precaution or trouble. The paper shall as well present an abridgment that seeks to establish fear and anxiety as identical rather than two contrasting concepts as believed by many. In the discussion on the biological basis of fear, the study shall include biological evidence relating to the specific parts of the human brain that respond and react to fear.IntroductionIt is interesting how humans respond to fear, particularly the bodily changes that take place in the event of an activity or something that triggers fear. Humans respon d to fear in contrastive ways, and their bodies react to unexpected situations of fear almost instantly. In response to fear, human bodies exhibit increased arousal, autonomic and neuroendocrinal activation and immediate expectancy among other spontaneous reactions. It is even surprising that fear triggers some turned on(p) reaction in humans based on recent studies by psychologists. An interesting revelation according to empirical studies on emotions infra the field of biology point to the fact that emotions are not just feelings as evolutionary studies would want us to believe. Emotions in human beings are come with by physiological and behavioural variations (Davidson, 2000). A widely accepted cognition of emotions today touches on the fundamental ideology that humans experience emotions in deuce-ace different but interrelated levels the behavioural level, the neurophysiological level and the psychological or metal level. Based on inference that emotions have a miserly rel ation to fear in terms of the mental or psychological state, it is possible to use such information to build upon the biological basis of fear (Walker, 2002). The consequence of predisposing factors that trigger emotions also tend to instil fear in human beings and this paper shall seek to unravel the biological basis of fear in terms of psychological and behavioural responses relating to biology.What is fear?Fear is a motivational state triggered by specific stimuli that result in or escape justificatory behaviour. Enthologists believe that fear is an unpleasant emotion that comes about as a result of the perception that some embody or something dangerous is likely to happen. This unpleasant emotion triggers a form of defence mechanism that results in escape or counter behaviours. In terms of biology, a couple of neuoroendocrinal activations that are usually self-winding mostly typify fear. This is all-important(a) in explaining the sudden escape of a person at the sight of a s cary animal that triggers immediate activations in the brain (Strongman, 1996). This effective defence mechanism triggered by a excitant instils fear. In this context, such instantaneous reactions to fear facilitate coping mechanisms used by the body to respond to cases of fear.The evolutionary aspects of fearThe evolutionary aspects of fear mainly relate to frantic responses. Fear is a factor of de-escalating tactic interceded by the emotional (paleomammalian) part of the fore brain. As man and other animals evolved millions of years ago, they adapted differently to fear. During the evolutionary period, diverse types of fear characterized the universe and were responded to by animals and humans in dissimilar ways. Scientists conclude that the adaptations coached by humans during this period explain the response and reactions of humans towards fear (Strongman, 1996). However, a couple of fear such as the fear of height is common to all mammals because of the adaptations developed during the Mesozoic era. The fear of snakes and other dangerous reptiles came into existence during the Cenozoic era and is common to all higher(prenominal) primates including humans and apes. However, others such as the fear of insects and mice developed in the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods are unique to humans. During these periods, insects and mice became popular carriers of dangerous infections and diseases, which resulted in different adaptive measures by humans. Such fears are still common today (Iijima, et al., 1996).The emotional brainThe emotional aspect of the brain occurs at three levels the behavioural level, the neurophysiological level and the psychological or metal level. Theories of emotion touching on the brain reveal that bodily changes tend to follow directly the perception of existing facts and human feelings of the same changes according to the occurrence of the emotion. In other words, the stimulus that reaches the cerebral cortex part of the brain provoke s intuitive changes, which are perceive as emotions. Other studies have advanced that the thalamus is greatly mixed in the neuropsychological matter of the brain because such matters are subcortical in nature. A biological explanation on the emotional brain is that a stimulus from the environment triggers the thalamus, which transmits information from to the viscera and cortex, and back again to the cortex to engender an emotional state (Gray McNaughton, 2000).Specific parts of the brain that work together to trigger reactions to fear stimuliAmygdalaThe amygdala is part of the brain structure where a bulk of neurobiological events related to fear occurs. It is located just behind the pituitary gland and respond in different ways to fear stimuli. Any fear stimulus activates the Amygdala to secrete a series of hormones that immediately influence aggression and fear (Vianna, 2003). As the process of secreting such hormones into the body begins, the Amygdala prompts the body into a s tate of awareness and alertness, which trigger instant response from other muscles in the legs and hand to get ready for take-off or a fight. As the essential component of the limbic system, the amygdala is critical in preparing the body to respond or react to fear by secreting hormones at the trigger of a fear stimulus (Borod, 2000). It integrates rapid and direct thalamic inputs that transmit a fear stimulus and imitates a cognitive process that prepares the body to respond or react to the threat.genus HippocampusThe genus Hippocampus is touted as the central structure in the brain that engages in processing contextual information necessary to fear conditioning. Situated just abutting to the amygdala and connected to it by the subiculum and entorhinal cortex, the hippocampuss main functions is to condition fear into contextual information. The hippocampus conditions fear in circumstances that involve manifold polymodal events by receiving impulses from the amygdala and integrati ng such impulses with prior information to ignite meaningful reactions that respond to fear (Davidson, 2000).HypothalamusThe hypothalamus plays a crucial role as far-off as fear response is concerned. It is responsible for controlling stress reactions and other body processes including emotions and moods. Through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal bloc (HTPA axis), the hypothalamus controls the limbic, pituitary, adrenal and genadotropic aspects of the body. A fear stimulus sends LC (locus ceruleus) neurons to the hypothalamus, which activates the HTPA axis that triggers the stress response linked to fear (Lewis Haviland-Jones, 2000). The connection between the hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala act to activate the HTPA axis to respond to a fear stimulus. The hypothalamus receives stunning information from the lateral part of the amygdala, processes the information and relays to the central nucleus, which then projects it to various(a) parts of the brain that respond and re act to fear. Fear stimulus impulses relayed by various neurons activate the sympathetic nervous system, as well as the modulating system of the HTPA axis. This triggers a run or attack response, better known as a fight or flight response mechanism (Hyman, et al., 1999).Sensory cortexThe afferent cortex is an essential component of the fear response mechanism. Immediate sensory data from fear stimulus collects in the thalamus part of the brain. After the collection of the sensory data, the sensory cortex obtains the data from the thalamus, interprets it and organizes the sensory data for dissemination to the amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus (Hirsh, 2004).ThalamusThe thalamus also plays a critical role in fear response. The thalamus basically acts as a collection center, which gathers and collects information from essential sensory organs such as the ears, eyes and mouth. After collecting the sensory information from such organs, the thalamus has the capacity to determine where to send such information for processing. A fear stimulus from the eyes, hands or mouth sends sensory information through neurons to the thalamus, which collects and sends the information to the appropriate response organs for processing (Lewis Haviland-Jones, 2000).Fear conditioning explains the behavioural pilot light displayed by organisms and their capacity to learn to respond to or predict fearful or threatening events. Fear conditioning explains why some people fear dogs to the extent that they become helpless at the sight of this monster. It is believed to depend upon the amygdala and the hippocampus in cases of contextual fear conditioning. Fear conditioning also explains the neurobiology of fear because touches on the essential components of the brain including the thalamus, the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus, the amygdala and the sensory cortex (Lewis Haviland-Jones, 2000). Latest research findings point to the fact that researchers are beginning to develop interest o n the neurological processes that trigger fear response mechanisms.ConclusionThe biological basis of fear can be explained by the evolutionary concepts of anxiety and emotions and adaptations of human beings to different stimuli. However, empirical research findings have established a basis for explaining the biology of fear through the human mind the structures such as the hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus and the sensory cortex. The outcome of predisposing factors that trigger emotions tend to instill fear in human beings as discussed in this paper. The biological basis of fear in terms of psychological and behavioural responses relates to emotion and anxiety, which is an advanced form of fear. Further research should be directed to the neurochemical processes that occur in the brain and the chemical components involved in response to fear.